Vertical tutoring Essay Example For Students

Vertical tutoring Essay This is backed up by Dylan Wiliam, who states that the teacher is reinforcing their own understanding thus creating a deeper learning, Most teachers Ive spoken to say they have never understood their subject fully until they started to teach it. (Wiliam, Meeting Dylan Wiliam, 2008). This could be further argued that; it is key element in a pupils social development, not only academic, through Vygotskys (ZPD) Zone of Proximal Development, whereby the teaching pupil becomes the MKO (More Knowledgeable Other) (Vygotsky, 1978). We will write a custom essay on Vertical tutoring specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Having spent the past three months in my placement, taking part with this pastoral model, I have realised that it has true potential to work. It is not a model that can be introduced and then nothing else put in place to support it. The traditional head of years are now redundant and a house system has to be introduced with heads and a supporting team. In this particular school they have kept in place the head of sixth form, this I believe is because with the vast amount of form tutors needed, they cannot all be trained and become experts in the very complex and time demanding job of university applications. Does it really help the form tutor in their pastoral role? Do all form tutors now need to be trained at a higher level of pastoral care? Are the tutees helped or hindered by the different age ranges? What happens to those individual teachers that work better with different groups of pupils, i. e. KS3 or KS4 groups? As under this system tutors will need to be able to deal with both KS3 and KS4 members and issues alike. All year groups have very different social needs and experiences. With the year 11s stressing (or in my experience at placement one not) over GCSEs, Year 13s pressure over their UCAS applications, Year 9s with their option choices, all very key steps in their individual lives, but none the less all as important to those individuals as the next. How could a form tutor balance all those different levels of apprehension, without making one less important than the next? Or do they use the circumstances to inform those who will experience this in future years, or give an opportunity for those before to reflect back on their own experience? Tutors do not teach PSHE as such but seek to facilitate learning relationships and increased maturity (real citizenship and active SEAL (The Department for Children, Schools an Families, 1997-2010) in part) by using Leadership and the Power of the Pack! Tutors are then better enabled to be responsible for the academic and pastoral needs of students. I believe that the Vertical Tutoring system can be lent to deep support as demonstrated by peer support as well as tutor support; it allows for a deeper level of leadership through the naturally authoritive figures such as sixth form members or simply the elder members of the form. It would also be an opportunity for younger members with natural leadership qualities to be able to represent and have authority over their elders, which can be a very true reality in outside of school life; this would also encourage an extended learning of opportunities such as Sports Leadership Gold, etc The system can also allow for a louder student voice as all age groups can contribute and bounce ideas for change off of one another, this would not be the case for the vast majority to be involved in, in traditional tutoring systems. I have already touched on the idea of pupils gaining a deeper understanding in learning to learn when pupils naturally lend themselves to helping their peers, not only through homework tasks, but fun group activities that provide important developmental skills needed in life, i. e. social and citizenship skills. I am aware on the other hand that, there are Vertical Tutoring Systems that are in place that are not as successful as the placement experience I have. This could be down to the fact that the nuts and bolts of the system have not been tweaked and set up adequately for the intended environment. .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 , .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .postImageUrl , .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 , .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:hover , .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:visited , .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:active { border:0!important; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:active , .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063 .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8cc89e937f1b896d9437d83d59aa6063:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Ivanhoe - Strenghth, Honor , And Chivalry EssayBibliography Barnard, P. A. (2006). Vertical Tutoring and School Improvement. Retrieved February 6, 2010, from Vertical Tutoring Organisation: http://www. verticaltutoring. org/ Best, R. (2000). Pastoral Care Personal-Social Eductaion: A Review of UK research undertaken for the British Educational Research Association. University of Surrey Roehampton, Education. Roehampton, Surrey, UK: British Educational Research Association. Black, P. , Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment. Phi Delta Kappan , 80. British Association for Counselling. (1978). Education for Personal Autonomy: An inquiry into the schools resources for furthering the personal development of pupils. (H. J. Blackham, Ed. ) London: Bedford Square Press. Cowie, H. , Hutson, N. (2005). Peer Support: A Strategy to Help Bystanders Challenge School Bullying. The Journal for Pastoral Care Personal-Social Education , 23 (2), 40 44. Ecclestone, K. , Hayes, D. (2008). Affect: Knowlegde, Communication, Creativity and Emotion. Oxford Brookes University, Education. Oxford: Beyond Current Horizons: Technology, Children and Families. Entwistle, N. (2000). Promoting Deep Learning through Teaching and Assessment: Conceptual Frameworks and Educational Contexts. TLRP Conference. Leicester: University of Edingburgh. Hamblin, D. (1986). A Pastoral Programme. In L. Monahan, Making School a Better Place. Oxford: Blackwell Hamblin. Hargreaves, D. H. (2006). A New Shape for Schooling? (P. Chambers, Ed. ) London, UK: Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. Heilbronn, R. , et al. (2004). The Pastoral Role Tutoring and Personal, Social and Health Education. In S. H. Capel, S. Capel (Ed.), Starting to Teach in the Secondary School: A Companion for the Newly Qualified Teacher (Second ed. , pp. 45 55). Abington, Oxford, UK: Routledge Falmer. Johnson, D. W. , Johnson, R. T. , Holubec, E. J. (1994). The Nuts Bolts of Cooperative Learning. Edina, Minnesota: Interaction Book Company. Johnson, D. W. , Johnson, R. T. , Smith, K. A. (2000). Cooperative Learning. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Univeristy of Minnesota Press. Learning-Theories. com. (2008). Social Development Theory (Vygotsky). Retrieved February 9, 2010, from Learning Theories Knowledgebase: http://www.learning-theories. com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory. html McGuiness, J. B. (1982). Planned Pastoral Care: A Guide for Teachers. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Limited. Miller, D. , Daniel, B. (2007). Competent to Cope, Worthy of Happiness? : How the Duality of Self-Esteem Can Inform a Resilience-Based Classroom Environment. School Psychology International , 28, 605 622. Slavin, R. E. (2004). When and Why does Cooperative Learning Increase Achievement? Theorectical Empirical Perspectives. In H. Daniels, A. Edwards, H. Daniels, A. Edwards (Eds. ), The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Psychology of Education (1st Edition ed. , pp. 271-292). London New York, UK USA/Canada: RoutledgeFalmer. Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. (2008, November 26-28). Leading System Redesign. (M. Allen, Ed. ) SecEd NewspaperWeekly (FREE) . The Department for Children, Schools an Families. (1997-2010). Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL): Improving behaviour, improving learning. Retrieved February 9, 2010, from The National Strategies: http://nationalstrategies. standards. dcsf. gov.uk/node/87009 Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between Learning and Development. In M. Cole, In Mind in Society (pp. 19-91). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Warburton, K. (2003). Deep Learning and Education for Sustainability. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education , 4 (1), 44-56. Wiliam, D. (2002, February 5). Assessing the best method of learning opinions of Prdoessor Dylan Wiliam. Retrieved February 9, 2010, from The Scotsman News: http://news. scotsman. com/opinion/PROFESSOR-DYLAN-WILLIAM-Assessing-the.2300218. jp Wiliam, D. (2008, April 11th). Meeting Dylan Wiliam. (E. Morris, Interviewer) Teachers. TV. Zeedyk, M. S. , et al (2003). Negotiating the Tranistion from Primary to Secondary School: Perceptions of Pupils, Parents and Teachers. School Psychology International , 24, 67 79.

buy custom Public Relations Practices at Starbucks Corporation essay

buy custom Public Relations Practices at Starbucks Corporation essay Introduction Public relations practices are the activities of an individual, corporation, company, store, group and government geared towards promoting goodwill between itself and the public, the community, employees and customers among others (Smith, 2005). Business environment in the current world is exceedingly competitive, thus requires something that brands the organization and makes them stand out to both the public and the media by creating positive public image. Public relations help the organizations to realize their full potential, majorly when good customer relations are attained. This is a managerial duty that is employed by both profit and nonprofit making organizations making them acceptable to members of the society. Literature Review Starbucks is an international corporation that is the largest coffee house company in the world and was first established on March 30, 1971 with its headquarters based at Seattle Washington in the United States of America. It presently has 17,009 distribution stores worldwide, spread in 50 countries in North America, South America, Asia, Europe, Africa and Oceania. It offers diversified products which include; drip prepared coffee, cold and hot sandwiches, coffee beans, espresso based hot drinks, salads, snacks, Panini, Pastries and other items like mugs and tumblers (Hoovers.com 2011). Starbucks is presently experiencing stiff rivalry from other coffee house companies like McDonald and the privately owned Dunkin Donuts. Human Rights Action Center (HRAC) on the other hand is a nonprofit organization based in Washington, DC and is directed by world-renowned human rights activist and pioneer Jack Healey. The Center works on concerns of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) [1] that was championed by United Nations in 1948 and uses the arts and technologies to create, innovate, and develop new mechanisms and strategies to stop human rights abuses all over the world.[2] HRAC also support emerging human rights groups and organizations all over the world. Analysis of how Starbucks used public relations to create a brand name Community Relations: On June 30, 2010, Starbucks engaged in a model project of flower and shrub planting that was led by a representative of the Ohio EPA. This activity brought together community members and their families, together with local, state and federal officials and other dignitaries who walked the new path and planted flowers and shrubs along thepath as part of the celebration (Hoovers.com 2011). The project was a joint effort which comprised the River works renovation team that transformed the Haleys Ditch to a natural stream. The job involved excavating a meandering stream, adding rocks and woody debris to form a natural habitat in the water, planting native grasses, trees, shrubs to create an ecosystem that attracts a variety of animals.This public involvement project was used to build a strong brand of Starbucks, since those involved perceived the company as environment friendly. Social Network: Starbucks recently used its good public image to collaborate with Foursquare which is a social network to capture pulse of stores, which enabled them to interact with customers in unique ways, by breaking down barriers of digital and physical worlds. The use of Foursquare was another method for Starbucks to take the rhythm of the experience in physical stores in real time and get feedback from customers (Hoovers.com 2011). This strategy helps Starbucks to market the brands in events and to reach areas that had not been maximized earlier. They also make use of the badge to help customers identify Starbucks location-sharing activity and the venues for such activities. They also open their brands to social media innovations and have gained approval of most influential personalities who command great following through the web. This method has been used by Starbucks where many influential celebrities are used to support and market the products through the social media lead ing to massive customer visits to the stores. Brand Partnerships: Brand partnerships are vital in maintaining their competitive edge in the market. For example, use of friends they have made who can easily favor them on Twitter, Facebook, Foursquare and Chatroulette. Each of them except Chatroulette, succeeded to find brand associates they believed in, to include in their new feature testing phases. These Starbucks brands get invited into a private occasion that then changes into media coverage on launch, which eventually introduces them to more people in the circle. Brands found in Twitters good graces have been drawn in to Foursquares elite group of trusted businesses. This partnership style of public relation has seriously assisted Starbucks to promote its brands to the public with the social media being widely accepted and can be accessed by many all over the world. Simple Communication: Starbucks used the keeping it super simple (K.I.S.S.) principle of communications to relay information about their products to the public (Rice Atkin, 2001). This is because communication is a very important tool in building positive relationships with the audience and consumers. Simple messages require no technical explanations, making the principle to be positioned into peoples mid, well understood and not to be forgotten easily by either a 13 or 80-years old members of the society (Hoovers.com 2011). How Starbucks is adjusting to the Social Media Sites Starbucks Corporation is operating in an environment with stiff competition and is making use of the social media like the Twitter, Facebook and social events to promote their brand in their bid to remain competitive in the market (Java Justice? 1997). Recently, StarbuckssVice President of Brand, Chris Bruzzo, was on stage at the Mashable Media Summit (Hoovers.com 2011) where he revealed that Free Pastry Day which was held last year was a whopping success and drove more than one million people to the stores. This also was circulated online. These social events created a big impact in marketing their brands and when was combined with promotions on social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook, the information spread instantly the same day of the event when news about free pastry was circulated in digital form (Hoovers.com 2011). Bruzzos tributes supporters for using social media to promote new business and his comments endorse that the increase of social media activity sent customer s to Starbucks stores in large numbers to purchase their unique brands. Starbucks also had the Tax Day green initiative which was very successful, especially when they asked customers to take in their tumblers to substitute withss free coffee. This was mainly promoted online through their Facebook page to reach many potential customers at ago (Hoovers.com 2011). Equally, the companys My Starbucks Idea also generated over 80,000 ideas, a success Bruzzo owes to Product Manager Brad Nelson for assisting them tap into the power of Twitter. Currently, Starbucks has succeeded to dominate on Facebook, became the first company to offer a nationwide foursquare deal in United States, and was nominated to test Twitters Promoted Tweets advertisement platform, before other advertisers are given the chance (Rice Atkin, 2001). This fast adoption of use of social media has given Starbucks competitive advantage in reaching more customers and building customer loyalty in their brands. Starbucks also used Internet Week NY which is a festival used to celebrate New York Channel growing internet industry and community. This clearly proves that Starbucks is employing social media to change the way it approaches marketing and for launching products. The Internet Week New York 2011 wrap was also a big success (Java Justice? 1997). Starbucks Corporation operates in a dynamic service industry where customer taste and preferences change with time. The management put more emphasis on quality customer service to be able to source more customers and maintain the current. Customer prospects revolve around product quality and service, value for money charged, timely service delivery and sustainability of service within an organized favorable atmosphere. The management has developed instant feedback mechanisms to get the views of the customers. This helps the corporation know the new market trends and customer expectations besides assisting it have personalized encounter with the customers to create positive image. Crisis that Starbucks faced and its Response to handle the crisis Coffee Crisis In 2008, Starbucks faced Coffee Crisis that led to the closure of 600 stores. This was as a result of competition and the global economic recession that drove away customers and led to no sales of coffee at hundreds of Starbucks stores across United States, where coffee went cold without consumers. On July, 1 2008, the nation's leading coffee chain declared that it would close nearly 600 coffee stores that were not profitable. Due to the decline of national economic growth, worried consumers saved their money and visited Starbucks less frequently, leading to a decline in consumption and profits by 28 percent compared with the figures as at March 30, 2007 (Hoovers.com 2011). This was confirmed by the statement of Starbucks CFO Pete Bocian delivered in a conference call, asserting that Starbucks is experiencing major impact from the economic meltdown. This effect was felt in all locations within the United States including California where, most of the stores were empty without any cus tomers (Hoovers.com 2011). Starbucks handled this crisis by closing down 600 stores that were not profitable by end of 2008 to cut down on operation costs, majorly the stores that were opened between 2006 and 2007. This was to leave only the stores that still had moderate customer flow and to improve customer concentration in the few operation stores (Java Justice? 1997). It also opened 200 fewer stores than intended in 2009 as the company awaited the world economy to stabilize. Starbucks also diversified its market to seek cheaper coffee supplies from countries like Kenya that had not been fully considered. The company equally made plans to remove breakfast sandwiches, but re-focused on coffee by offering a new smoother blend and Pike Place Roast in all stores, grinding and brewing fresh groups of coffee more frequently during the day. This closure resulted in only 16,226 stores left to operate globally by March 2009 with 11,434 in the U.S. (Hoovers.com 2011). Competition was another cause of the Coffee Crisis Starbucks faced. Its close competitors incllude other coffee shops, restaurants and doughnut shops. Starbucks, that has increased its prices twice in the past year,is experiencing major competition from McDonalds and privately owned Dunkin Donuts (Java Justice? 1997). Dunkin Donuts currently has nearly 5,000 stores in the U.S. targeting the same customer as Starbucks. Starbucks also faces significant setbacks as its stores face saturation in the domestic market and a change in consumer spending activated by the global recession has also compelled consumers to shift to less costly competitors such as McDonalds. There is also specialty coffeehouse competitor - Caribou Coffee that has 415 stores in the US and offers considerable competition to Starbucks due to its specialty among the thousands of independent and small-chain coffee shops around United States and the world. Competition has been dealt with through high level public relationsstrategies Starbucks has put in place that has given rise to classic working environment that attract great employees, who provide better customer service, leading to improved sales. Being that this is a service industry, quality service plays a major role in the success of the company with attractive environment, for example, in Starbucks; one can take coffee as he listens to a good music, thus creating added value to their service. Starbucks has also adopted the work and relax model that attracts more qualified customer service representatives (Java Justice? 1997). This model encourages high productivity among the employees. Starbucks has also diversified its products to a variety, ranging from high quality whole bean coffee, premium teas, freshly brewed coffee, a variety of cold blended beverages, coffee and beverage, various food pastry items, as well as a line of CDs. This diversification gives them competitive e dge over other rivals making its stores a one stop shop where a number of drinks needed by customers are found. Similarities between Public Relations Campaigns for Starbucks and HRAC The tools used to build public relations are similar both in profit and nonprofit making organizations. Traditional tools comprise press releases and media kits which are released to generate positive image of the organization, brochures, and annual reports newsletters (Wilcox, Ault Agee, 1992). There is also increase in the use of interactive social media outlets, such as Twitter, Facebook, and foursquare which is a social network as tools for public relations campaigns. The social media tools allow the organization to utilize two way communications, and receive instant feedback from various stakeholders and public. The methods used to find out what is appealing to target audiences include the use of focus groups, surveys and conducting research (Wilcox, Ault Agee, 1992). Both profit and nonprofit organizations have a similarity in the main role of public relations of maintaining and harnessing the relationship between an organization and its publics. This reason makes public relations to become the custodian of the organizations reputation. This is achieved through a high level of professionalism exhibited by the practitioners both in profit and nonprofit organizations. Differences between public relations campaigns for Starbucks and HRAC The aim of Public relations in nonprofit organizations like Human Rights Action Center is to build understanding and public relations activity that can be sustained to be effective in the long run while public relations for profit making organizations like Starbucks are geared towards influencing the minds of members of public with a view of convincing them to change their mind in terms of what to consume. The role of the public relations professionals is to develop and sustain long relationships with the public by giving the most favorable, but honest information. HRAC organizations public relations campaigns are not personalized but are run by voluntary sector and civil society with their missions not to make money who help people in difficult situations in delivering essential services and are supported by charity organizations. The campaigns are geared towards educating the public concerning the UDHR, to enlighten members of the public on their rights and to represent the vulnerable groups like the children.Profit making organizations Campaigns on the other hand sponsor their marketing activities with their sole objective to make sales irrespective the level of public knowledge on their products. Conclusion Public relations is very vital in individual, corporation and government operation that ensures an organization commands public goodwill and makes an organization to realize its full potential (Smith, 2005). Starbucks Corporation, a profit making company fully employed several public relations techniques to engage the community using public functions including Internet Week NY and Foursquare deal and the use of social media like the Twitter, Facebook to change opinions of consumers to fully accept the Starbucks brands. This technique made Starbucks have a competitive advantage over its rivals in the coffee industry. Starbucks however faced Coffee Crisis that arose as a result of economic recession and competition in 2008 that led to the closure of 600 stores. Buy custom Public Relations Practices at Starbucks Corporation essay

Forming the Past Tense of Regular Verbs

Forming the Past Tense of Regular Verbs The tense of a verb suggests the time of its action- present, past, or future. We rely on the past tense to show that an action has already been completed. Adding -d or -ed to Form the Past Tense In the following sentences, the verbs in bold are in the past tense: Wallace moved into his new house last Saturday.Yesterday I visited him for tea. Both move and visit are called regular verbs because they have the same past-tense ending of -ed. If the present form of a regular verb ends in -e, we add -d to form the past tense: Wallace and Gromit move frequently. (present tense)Wallace and Gromit moved into their new house last Saturday. (past tense) If the present form of a regular verb ends in a letter other than -e, we usually add -ed to form the past tense: I visit Wallace and Gromit every Tuesday evening. (present tense)Yesterday I visited them for tea. (past tense) Note that a spelling rule comes into play with verbs ending in -y. If the present form of a regular verb ends in -y preceded by a consonant (for example, cry, fry, try, carry), change the y to i and add -ed to form the past tense (cried, fried, tried, carried): Wallace and Gromit carry the cheese and crackers into the kitchen. (present tense)Wallace and Gromit carried the cheese and crackers into the kitchen. (past tense) Because all regular verbs have the same -ed ending in the past tense no matter what the subject is, subject-verb agreement is not a problem. The Different Sounds of the -ed Ending Dont let the sound of an -ed ending ever trick you into making a spelling error when you form the past tense. While we do hear a d sound at the end of some verbs (for example, moved and visited), we hear a t sound at the end of others (promised, laughed). Also, if you have a habit when you speak of clipping off word endings, dont do this when you write. No matter what sound you hear or fail to hear when you pronounce a regular verb in the past tense, be careful when you write to add -d or -ed at the end. EXERCISE: Forming the Past Tense of Regular Verbs The first sentence in each set below contains a verb in the present tense. Complete the second sentence in each set by adding -d or -ed to the verb in parentheses to form the past tense. When youre done, compare your responses with the answers at the end of the exercise. Carrot Top uses unusual props in his comedy act. Recently he (use) a double-wide toilet seat.Halleys Comet appears every 76 years. It last (appear) in 1986.We rarely punish the children. However, we (punish) them yesterday for spray-painting the dog.Wallace likes knitting and reading the newspaper. Even as a boy, he (like) to invent things.Wallace enjoys Wensleydale cheese and a nice cup of tea. When he was younger, Wallace (enjoy) cheddar cheese.I usually purchase a season ticket from the box office. Yesterday I (purchase) a ticket over the Internet.Gromit graduates from college today. Last year he (graduate) from Dogwarts University.Please carry this invention upstairs for me. I (carry) it into the house.Mookie and Buddy cry when they are hungry. Last night they (cry) for over an hour.Gromit tries very hard to be helpful. He (try) too hard last week. ANSWERS:1. used; 2. appeared; 3. punished; 4. liked; 5. enjoyed; 6. purchased; 7. graduated; 8. carried; 9. cried; 10. tried.

The Treatment of Acute Exacerbation of COPD Research Paper - 1

The Treatment of Acute Exacerbation of COPD - Research Paper Example However, Sahn (2012) conducted research that showed the pre-hospital administration of hydrocortisone may improve. This could possibly be a result of evidence-based practice (EBP) and the purpose of this paper is to present the results of research into the topic.   EBP is relevant in practice mainly because it is informed by recently researched data that has been approved by professionals and the industry. According to Moyer (2008), managing acute exacerbation of COPD is a common practice that demands the critical search for evidence in the healthcare setting. In agreement with this opinion, Gregory and Mursell (2010) emphasize that medical practitioners should formulate relevant questions about the treatment of acute exacerbation of COPD. Based on this, this essay will search and answer the question â€Å"would the outcome of patients with acute exacerbation of COPD be improved by the pre-hospital administration of hydrocortisone in the UK?† Specifically applied to this question, the PICO model defines not only the problem but also the population at which the population is targeted. This was significant in the shaping of the literature search because it narrowed down the scope to a more defined area with specific expected outcomes. Yoder-Wise (2007) points out that it is critical in detailing the interventions and risk factors that must be considered by paramedics in their proc edure. This is as opposed to stereotyping the management of acute exacerbation of COPD to a particular long-used procedure (Goldacre, 2013).  Ã‚  

Eagle's Nest Hotels Case Study - Detailed Implementation Plan Essay

Eagle's Nest Hotels Case Study - Detailed Implementation Plan - Essay Example Some special arrangements need to be made to meet the requirements of the government policy and to fix that an additional cost of US $30 million is required. The original budget was $125 million but that has been reduced to US $75 million. This reduction in our budget is all across the portfolio. How it will affect the operations, let’s take a closure look. Here at our Eagle Nest operations department we have to act accordingly to cope with this challenge. Our plan of action includes budgeting (cost reduction) in the following. The building rented will be hosting a room quantity 120-150 commercial Target Date Even though we are starting the business in January but our target is July to capture the mass tourists market. When they will be coming to visit the Amsterdam Metropolitan in crowds. So we have ample time to get things fully running. Our key areas to focus on are 1) Food production, products purchase technology, menu card planning, supply and consumption control, and occ upational hygiene. 2) Food and Beverage Service (rendering services to clients, wines and beverages purchase, meeting visitors, orders fulfillment) 3) Housekeeping 4) Front office operations (reception and accommodation of visitors and further service rendering). 5) Interior Product description It is a modern fashionable motel in the heart of Amsterdam Metropolitan. ... Key risks and mitigation The key risk that we face is the competition. We don’t need to worry about the reputation or the brand loyalty. There are many huge hotel giants already operating there. Our original budget of $125 million was sufficient to compete with them. But now the budget has been rescheduled. We were aiming for advertisement at a grand level but the budget being reduced has forced us to rethink on that strategy. We will spend very little on TV advertisement. We are taking the route via the internet. Impact on operations Department Just like the other departments, the impact on the operations department will be quite severe. We will be forced to cut down on cost. In terms of percentage, it will be round about 40% of our total original budget. The biggest challenge is to cope with the legal requirements as those cannot be avoided. We are looking for very efficient plans in cost reduction. As we simply cannot compete in such a high profile area such as the Amsterda m Metropolitan without having our arsenal filled with the top quality armoury. Time plan The operations procedure will commence as soon as we get the contract for having the building on rent. Starting with the interior of the hotel. Furniture, china, linen, Kitchen ware, furniture are the major things to get our motel running. Given the area of Amsterdam Metropolitan, we are expecting a very high competition. The key thing to keep in mind is that we cannot start with the state of the art interior and the building outlook. Probably it is very much noticeable at this stage that the budget getting reduced by 40% is very favourable for us. People in the metropolitan area of Amsterdam prefer the culture of that place. Our target guests will include a major percentage of

The Causes Of World War One Essay Example for Free

The Causes Of World War One Essay In the immediate view, it seems that there are two main arguments attributed to the origins of the First World War. One is that the war was planned, the other that it occurred due to accident and miscalculation. I aim to give a detailed analysis of these two arguments with the focus being on the main European powers at the time Germany, Great Britain, France and Russia. It is my view that the First World War was effectively planned, all be it for a later date, and that due to some miscalculations, it was then brought forward so that war would break out in Europe in August 1914. Using sources from various historians, I will argue this point of a planned war blaming it almost solely on the part of the German Empire and bringing in the other side of the argument, that the First World War was the result of accident and miscalculation. The most important idea in the argument that Germany planned the First World War is to be found in the Foreign Policies that she pursued from the late Nineteenth Century to the outbreak of war in 1914. It was the view that no matter how achieved, a German dominated Europe would provide a successful base for the ideal of Weltpolitik. This idea of Weltpolitik was the aim at the head of the hierarchy of German Foreign Policy; it gave the notion of a world mission, but an aggressive one, a mission where no man or nation would stand in the way of its objectives. The key point when describing German Foreign Policy before 1914 is of their willingness to risk war for their own gains in order to achieve world domination and the status of a major power. Michael Gordon argues that this war Germany risked did not, in their minds, involve Britain their greatest rival; As far as German policy is concerned, its readiness to risk war for its own ends either a local Balkan war fought by its ally in Vienna or a larger, continental-sized war in which it, France and Russia participated now seems unshakably established. therefore it seems that by 1914, the Germans had already decided that some form of war would occur. It is also evident that she had a clear plan of her ambitions and military aims later undone by her miscalculation of British and Russian policy which would result in a German dominated Europe; By either one of these two wars the German government thought its interests would be served: at minimum, a successful localised war kept limited by Russias backing off in fear would in the German view probably break up the Franco-Russian alliance, shore up the tottering Austro-Hungarian Empire, and clear the way in Central Europe for an eventual German breakthrough to successful Weltpolitik. It is my view that German Foreign Policy therefore dictated a planned war. This planned war may have been intended to be a fairly localised affair, but then the Germans had obviously either been misled or been ignorant to the stances of both Britain and Russia concerning this idea. Gordon argues that German leaders did not consciously aim at it , but that world war merely emanated from continental war in 1914. The previous German generation were devotees of the world policy , devised by Bismarck but taken up and massively extended by his successor Kaiser Wilhelm II. On his accession to the German throne in July 1888, Wilhelm quickly laid out his programme for country; he wanted to secure Germany a place in the sun . This could have meant anything, but translated, it meant that the basic and primary idea was to destroy Englands position in the world to Germanys advantage . Further translated, the Kaisers ideas aspire to the German jealousy of Britain and her wealth, colonial rule, ind ustrialisation and above all, world naval supremacy. Previous wars of the early Twentieth Century, for example, the Sino-Japanese and Boer Wars had proved the importance of sea power. Fritz Fischer argues that the construction of a great fleet was at the centre of Germanys political plans and that to build such a supreme fleet was the only way of catching up with Britain and being equal to other world powers. Again this jealousy is re-iterated by the lack of self-belief from the German government. We can see therefore, that her Foreign Policy was aggressive when it need not have been and that the idea of Weltpolitik was based on insurances from her huge army and navy. The government now had the full backing of groups of industry, which now heavily concentrated on shipbuilding. Pre-war German Foreign Policy can be summed up by Max Schinkel, the director of Germanys second largest bank; the broader basis in Europe was necessary for laying economic foundations of German world policy It can be argued that this world policy originated under Bismarckian rule, but it is my view that Bismarck merely fuelled the German people with ideas and the accession of Wilhelm made sure that these changes were not only made, but also radically altered and put harshly into place. All armies make plans. However do they make such specific and intentional plans as the Germans did before the First World War? The m ain reason that people think Germany planned the war is due to the Schlieffen Plan. However, as John Keegan argues, the Schlieffen Plan was merely a military affair with military objectives if such a conflict in Europe arose. However it did contain very specific aims in accordance with where the first attacks would be made and then where the majority of fighting would take place; In no sense did it precipitate the First World War Neither did its failure it was a plan for a quick victory in a short war Nevertheless, Schlieffens plan dictated where the wars focus would lie and through its innate flaws, the possibility of its protraction. I believe that what Schlieffen had in mind was a purely military plan, if, by chance, such a crisis arose. I do not believe that Schlieffen himself had anything to do with how the war came into being; he was purely commissioned to draft such a plan. However, the Kaiser, who wanted this war plan drawn up, did have many ulterior motives. He is the main figure in Germany at this time and it is very much as what he says goes. No one would dare question him due to his absolute intolerance of argumentative characters. What Schlieffen came up with was; a plan pregnant with dangerous uncertainty: the uncertainty of the quick victory it was designed to achieve; the greater uncertainty of what would follow if it did not attain its intended object. it seems, therefore, that the Germans, although they had this plan, had no kind of backup or alternative strategy. That idea is typical of the Kaisers character. On many occasions he would just throw everything out of the window and go for his objectives by the shortest possible route. This also confirms and is confirmed by the definition of Weltpolitik that no man or nation would stand in the way of Germany. Did other countries have war plans? Yes, of course, but none were as grandiose and as specific as the German idea. The French war plan confirmed her timidity in the face of her great enemy Germany. At first, they toyed with the idea of defence of the common frontier in the event of war , as; A French attack was though impossible by reason of disparity of numbers. A static French population of forty million could not challenge an expanding German population already fifty million strong and rising fast .. However, this was later disposed of and after some altercation concerning which was the best form of attack, Plan XVII was created in April 1913 but kept secret until the outbreak of war which dictated a headlong attack across the common Franco-German frontier, into Lorraine and towards the Rhine . This then became the French war plan. It was minimal and uncomplicated compared to that of Germany and in my opinion how a war plan should be set out. I believe a war plan should contain certain objectives, but mostly a lot of room to manoeuvre as there is always the problem of miscalculation (which Germany will later become the victim of). It is Fischers view (and I am inclined to agree with him) that it is the idea of world power and German domination that led to the outbreak of war. He argues that Germanys claim to world power was based on her consciousness of being a young, growing and rising nation . This national expansion on all fronts meant that Germany was developing into a high ly industrialised exporting country. However she was running out of options, with so many enemies, of finding markets and raw materials. This did not affect the Germans and played right into their hands and their world mission idea. Through this forced change of markets, she shifted her trade from the traditions of Britain, France and Europe to a worldwide trade; in 1913 the share of Europe in her imports and exports had gone down by 30 per cent; overseas countries, the tropics and above all South America, were supplying an increasing proportion of her raw materials. This advance of Germany in the world of business was based on the expansion of the great iron and steel industry, however new industries, including global communications, were starting to become successful. Therefore this reinforces the view that Germany was becoming a great power and that the people themselves through the Kaisers erratic ideas thought that they were becoming a real force and that the world mission was now a realistic target. It had already been proven that naval power was an incredibly important asset for a country to own; to free hers elf from dependence on British ships.., to enable her to bring her exports, financed by her own capital, to their markets abroad without British middle-men, Germany had to have her own merchant marine. the idea of this new naval power was that it would protect shipping and force Britain to regard her as an equal. However I believe that the new German Navy was a status symbol as much as it was a powerful weapon, as all of these domestic policies were geared towards strengthening Germany and therefore, it being easier to weaken other countries. Moreover, with her lack of raw materials, it became difficult for Germany to maintain her penetration of world markets; the narrowness of her raw materials market became increasingly apparent, and as she penetrated more deeply into world markets, this narrowness became more irksome. by now we can see the extent of Germanys (but predominantly the Kaisers) ideas. It is clear that there are no alternatives but to go for the highest objective by the quickest route, ignoring all other possibilities. I believe that these policies were absurd considering how close they were to fulfilling their goal of Weltpolitik. When taking into account the second argument; that the First World War was the result of accident and miscalculation, I do not believe that any cause s of the war can be attributed to accident, because when nations have such rigid policies and plans concerning Foreign and Domestic Policies and long-term war plans, it is impossible to see how any accidents can happen. However there were a miscalculations made, although I do not believe that these miscalculations were direct causes of the First World War. The idea of a German dominated Europe and all of Germanys war plans were greatly undone by her total miscalculation of British and Russian policy. As previously mentioned German Policy makers believed that their fight would be a short, successful and localised affair, due to Russia being too weak to try to deal with Germany now this Great Power; at minimum, a successful, localised war kept limited by Russias backing off in fear it is clear that the Germans really thought that Russia was basically insignificant. They drew this conclusion from the fact that Russia had already fought in a large war less than ten years earlier the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 as Russias drive across Asia and the Far-East continued. However, either by Russias secretiveness or by Germanys lack of detailed research, the German government did not realise that Russia w ould be able, not only to defend herself, but also to attack Germany. After much confrontation in the Balkans, Kaiser Wilhelm II was convinced that we shall soon see the third chapter of the Balkan wars in which we shall be involved . He was convinced that the balance of powers depended on that in the Balkans. It was to be these relatively small Balkan Wars that would lead to world war. The Kaiser gave the notion that Germany could deal with that though and therefore started to lay out diplomatic ideas for war with Russia. I believe that a German-Russian war was always going to occur; it was just a matter of when. In conversation with Archduke Franz Ferdinand the German Ambassador to Serbia the Kaiser argued that it was vital for Austria-Hungary her great ally to take action against Serbia, and that Russia wouldnt oppose, as she was by no means ready for war . However, with the assassination of Ferdinand by the Serbs, Germany agreed that the Balkan crisis was irreconcilable. Therefore, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and this was a move designed to improve Germanys position for eventual war with Russia. However, German assumption that Russia wasnt ready for war and wouldnt oppose Austria-Hungarys action s proved to be mistaken. Therefore, this eventual German-Russian war followed by four days and not four years as it had been laid out to do in 1917 in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan. However, Wilhelms arrogance and stupidity grew further. He saw the German-Russian war merely as a nuisance and that the Russian recovery gave them an unexpected problem, as their main objective was to acquire extra European Empire at Britains expense. I believe it was Russias attitude that Germany miscalculated, as she was and always has been a very secretive nation. We can also see through the alliances, how this conflict merged into world war. Moreover Germany underestimated Britain. She saw her archrival as being merely a diplomatic power, which was not big enough or daring enough to risk war for the sake of others. I believe it was this German attitude and her supposed increased threat that caused Britain to intervene militarily, more than her alliance with Russia. Therefore due to these great miscalculations, the Schlieffen Plan became void and Germany found herself encircled and in a world war situation. I have already mentioned that Schlieffens plan was pregnant with dangerous uncertainty of what would follow if it did not attain i ts intended objectives , and that is precisely what happened. Since the Germans had no backup plan, they forced themselves into a situation for which they werent prepared. Keegan finally points out that Secret plans determined that any crisis not settled by sensible diplomacy would, in the circumstances prevailing in Europe in 1914 lead to general war. In conclusion, I agree with Keegan, that through all events, war became an inevitable prospect. However through my arguments and chosen sources we can see that the First World War was ultimately planned and due to miscalculation on Germanys part, brought forward to August 1914. Moreover, her argument that the war was the result of accident and miscalculation does not stand up. This is shown mostly in Fischers argument that ultimately she could have prevented a world war even though she planned some kind of war such was her control over Europe at this time. BIBLIOGRAPHY FISCHER, F., Germanys Aims in the First World War (London: Chatto Windus, 1967) GORDON, M., Domestic Conflict and the Origins of the First World War: The British and the German Cases, Journal of Modern History, vol. 46 (1974) KAISER, D., Germany and the Origins of the First World War, Journal of Modern History, vol. 55 (1983) KEEGAN J., The First World War (London: Pimlico, 1999) KEIGER, J., France and the Origins of the World War (London: McMillan, 1983) WEHLER, H-U., The German Empire 1871-1918 (1985) WILSON, K., European Diplomacy 1871-1914, in PUGH, M, ed, A Companion to Modern European History 1871-1945 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997)

Organizational Review Of Plant Automation Group :: essays research papers

Organizational Review of Plant Automation Group It is intended that this organizational review, will provide the Districts with a better understanding of the changing process computer hardware and software support needs. Also to review the department location for the Plant Automation Group (Group), and develop recommendations on the proposed reporting relationships.  ¨ Review the background information.  ¨ Identify the primary and secondary functions of the Plant Automation Group  ¨ Review possible location of the Plant Automation Group.  ¨ Identify and review reporting relationships options DEFINITIONS Definitions used within this organizational review. SCADA Supervisory and Data Acquisition System PLC Programmable Logic Controller HMI Human Machine Interface ITD Information Technology Department PAG Plant Automation Group GM General Manager BACKGROUND When the Districts first began consideration to form a focal group with responsibility for Plant Automation, a task force was formed to make recommendations. The one recommendation this task was unable to come to agreement on was the location of this new Plant Automation Group (PAG). An executive decision was made by the General Manager to center the PAG in the Information Technology Department (ITD). In September 1994, the Joint Board contracted with Ernst & Young to produce a "Management Review of the Proposed Plant Automation Group for the Sanitation Districts of Orange County". Their report recommended the location be with ITD but noted that for the duration of the J-31 project, some engineering-related activities would be involved and require close coordination with the Engineering Department. As late as July 1995 when Ernst & Young performed the Finance Function Review (which included the Information Services Division), they echoed their previous recommendation but provided a timeline of approximately two years to revisit the issue of PAG's location. However, this was not a firm recommendation. Over the past several months, a number of problems have made it clear that the two year time frame identified in the Ernst & Young report may have been optimistic. The problems of budget management, close coordination and communication have placed a strain on the existing management of the ITD, creating frustration and numerous problems throughout many parts of the organization. Primary Functions The charter of the Plant Automation focuses on:  ¨ Support of the Operations Division  ¨ Providing engineering integration assistance through software and hardware analysis and the setting of standards  ¨ Support of the Maintenance Division regarding system and software modifications and changes  ¨ Assisting in the roll-out of the J-31 contract so that a transfer of knowledge between CH2M Hill and the Districts occurs  ¨ Analyzing and the recommendation of system and network architecture, system design, and integration proposals. The Plant Automation Group is made up of a number of disciplines. Process control programming is very different from the type of programming which

Malaria in Nigeria Essay

Malaria is one of the devastating cases in the world, It has become a major problem because its spreading in 109 countries. Almost 90% of malaria death comes from Africa, around 66% of the people’s lives are in high risk. So in total, less than 15% of the global total malaria deaths occur in Asia and Eastern Europe. (author) Why is malaria dangerous? Malaria in humans is caused by many types of parasites but the most dangerous and the one that causes 90% of deaths around the world from malaria is plasmodium falciparum. This parasite is the most dangerous one because it affects the behavior of the red blood cells, Red blood cells get infected by the parasite and become sticky and it becomes impossible to pass through our body organs so they get stuck. This can result to further complications. When this happens inside the brain, it results to coma or even death. (Q&A) How do people in Nigeria try to prevent malaria? There isn’t any cure for malaria yet, it can only be prevented In my own opinion, I think malaria could be prevented by distributing treated bed nets, treating water drinking it, avoiding stagnant water. Malaria prevention is crucial as malaria can be fatal. Prevention is better than cure and involves killing the mosquitos and also repelling them. Prophylactic drugs; Several drugs, most of which are used for treatment of malaria, can be taken preventively. Generally, these drugs are taken daily or weekly, at a lower dose than would be used for treatment of a person who had actually contracted the disease. Use of prophylactic drugs is seldom practical for full time residents of malaria-endemic areas. Prevention of malaria involves protecting yourself against mosquito bites and taking ant malarial medicines. But public health officials strongly recommend that children and pregnant women avoid going to areas where malaria is common. (WebMD) Malaria is a serious disease, which in the worst case may be fatal. Its widespread in tropical and subtropical areas. Some ways which malaria can be prevented * Avoid mosquito bites; mosquitoes bite particularly at twilight and at night, so you should take most precautions at this time. Spray your room with an insecticide before to kill any mosquitoes that has go inside during the day. Otherwise use a mosquito net around your bed, impregnated with an insecticide such as pyrethrum. * Long trousers, long sleeve clothing and socks thick enough to stop the mosquitoes biting will also protect you and should be worn outside after sunset but it may be hard to follow such advice in hot climate. Light colors are less attractive to mosquitoes Preventive medicines should be given to breastfed, as well as bottlefed, babies because they’re not protected by the mother’s medicine passing into the breast milk. Its important to check with your pharmacist or doctor regarding the correct doses for children aged 12 years or under. Pregnant women are discouraged by the WHO from travelling to malria regions whre there’s cloroquine-resistant falcipaium malaria because malaria increases the risk of abortion, premature birth , still birth and maternal death. Just as for children an extra effort should be made to protect your self from mosquito and malaria if you’re obliged to travel. (nil) Insecticide-treated bed nets may be low-tech, but they are a highly effective way to prevent the spread of malaria. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, widespread use of treated bed nets has been shown to reduce transmission of the disease by about 90 percent. But the nets—which cost several dollars each—may be difficult to come by or too costly for those who need them most. Reapplication of pyrethroid insecticide at the recommended intervals of 6 to 12 months can also pose problems with older nets. Bibiliography No author. Stop Malaria Now! Nil Nil 2008. 21 November 2012 . Bibliography author, No. Stop Malaria Now! Nil Nil 2008. 21 November 2012 . nil. Netdoctor. nil nil nil. 01 november 2012 . Nil. The Lagos State- Malaria Control Program. Nil Nil 2012. 22 November 2012

Speak Response to Literature

â€Å"It is easier not to say anything. Shut your trap, button your lip; can it. All that crap you hear on TV about communication and expressing feelings is a lie. Nobody really wants to hear what you have to say. † (Speak. Pg. 9, Paragraph 4. ) Everyone at some point in their lives have felt that terrifying feeling of dejection, sorrow, anger, frustration and pain. Whether it is an action done by one or an action done by others, there is always the fear of being judged, to which people decide it is best if they don’t talk their problems with others.Melinda used to be a serene, sweet loving girl that loved to play sports and had a good relationship with her parents and friends, but suddenly, as she started her first high school year, she skips days of school, drop her grades and feels completely empty. The tones of fear and relief in Speak, by Laurie Halse Anderson reflect an inner growth presented by the main character when she overcomes the challenging and devastating condition of being sexually abused.The foreshadowing presented several times in the story reinforces the mystery and the intrigue in the reader as it discovers and resolves the conflict and causes of it. In the beginning of the book, Melinda expresses what she has â€Å"been dreading†; she is the â€Å"Outcast† and the only person â€Å"in the entire galaxy [she is] dying to tell what really happened† (Pg. 3, Paragraph 3; Pg. 4, Paragraph 2. ) and whom she trusted all her life, Rachelle, Melinda’s best friend until 8th grade, hates her to death.For this reason the reader can infer that something inconveniently awful occurred since there is a very sudden shift in their friendship that caused not only their total isolation, but also, feelings of anger and resentment. The author does this to emphasize a sense of interest, charm and curiosity as a hook to capture the reader’s attention from the beginning to build up the plot in the story. Equally, lat er on in the book, there is a shocking event when Melinda gets trapped with Andy Evans in the janitor’s office; she was about to â€Å"wet [her] pants† as Andy lividly â€Å"cracks his knuckles† and â€Å"stares at [her] without talking. (Pg. 193, Paragraph 3. ) As Melinda gets corned face to face with her biggest fear, the reader feels anxious wondering whether he is going to rape her again or is Melinda going to stand up for herself, be courageous and take revenge from that pervert selfish man. The author does this to built suspense in the reader as it gets to the ending resolution of the book’s plot; this anxiety is built up by giving small clues that indicate certain actions. For this reason the reader is able to get the traumatic feelings of terror and affliction from a likely experience.The symbolism behind the abandoned janitor’s office in Speak, conveys the reader of the powerful conflict of man versus self. In a moment of trouble, Melinda discovers the inactive and decrepit janitor’s office and she describes it as an â€Å"abandoned [place] – [with] no purpose, no name† and finds is it appropriate for her. (Pg. 25, Paragraph 4. ) The closet represents isolation from the rest of the school as well as it provides her with a place of self-reflection and tranquil safety.The author does this to emphasize Melinda’s affliction and her insecurity, hiding from people and not expressing her feelings to others. Consequently, the Secret Annex was a place for protection and avoiding any type of harm during the World War II in which Anne Frank and her family lived for a very long time. Furthermore, in the end of the story, Melinda is packing her stuff from the closet when suddenly, â€Å"some body slams into [her] chest and nocks [her] back into† it (Pg. 193, Paragraph 3. ); she trapped with Andy Evans, the beast that hurt her once and came to do it once more.As they were fighting, Melinda break s the mirror hanging form the wall and â€Å"wrap [her] fingers around a triangle of glass†; she holds it into Andy Evans neck â€Å"hard enough to raise one drop of blood†. Immediately, â€Å"his lips are paralyzed† and â€Å" cannot speak†. Melinda added, â€Å"I said no† (Pg. 195, Paragraph 2. ). The closet reflects the place of self-transformation as she becomes courageous and gains control of the situation to fight for herself. The author does this to demonstrate the rewarding satisfaction of fighting over the problems and the huge change that involved courage and maturity.Melinda is able to defeat her biggest fear by growing up, having confidence in herself just like an invincible hero. The first person point of view gives the reader a personal-hand experience of the struggle the protagonist experience as she overcomes her condition. After confronting the truth about what happened that night in a TV show, she feels extremely sick, devastated and confesses, â€Å"My head is killing me, my throat is killing me, my stomach bubbles with toxic waste. (†¦) A coma would be nice. †¦) Anything just to get rid of this, these thoughts, whispers in my mind. Did he rape my head too? † (Pg. 165, Paragraph 2. ) When the character starts reflecting about what happened, she feels fearful and uncertain. The author does this to help the reader understand a personal experience by getting inside her head, which is the only place where Melinda expresses without restrictions or concerns of being judged by her parents, friends and society. In the last pages of the story, Melinda makes a self-reflection in which she says, â€Å"IT happened.There is no avoiding it, no forgetting. No running away, or flying, or burying, or hiding. (†¦) It wasn’t my fault. He hurt me. It wasn’t my fault. And I’m not going to let it kill me. I can grow. † (Pg. 198, Paragraph 1. ) As Melinda cogitates on the events t hat occurred that night, she has a drastic transformation from her mature beliefs compared to her callow, insecure ones. The author uses this point of view to emphasize the emotional and personal growth of the protagonist by becoming courageous and confronting her fear.This perspective is intended so the reader can feel empathy and understanding as it becomes aware of the main character’s personal opinions. Melinda’s challenge reinforces life’s most challenging task, growing up. Being in such a traumatic age of 14 to 16, it is very hard to deal with these types of situations that are ordinary in our society but are often excluded from conversations; however Melinda’s actions should endure as being a raw model to other people that have experienced the same abuse.Society should protect and look after everyone involved in any abuse, instead, of being so close-minded and judgmental. Furthermore, in order for these abuses to stop, people should gain courage to defend themselves by denouncing their acts; the society around them should not let these misdoings be forgotten with neglect. Bibliography Halse Anderson, Laurie. Speak. New York: Penguin Group, 2009. Print.

Charles Kingsford Smith essays

Charles Kingsford Smith essays Charles Kingsford Smith was born at Hamilton, Queensland 9th February 1897. Charles was the youngest of his six siblings, he was a small and energetic boy who would do anything for a dare and loved adventure. He was educated in Canada and Australia and graduated from Sydney Technical College as an Electrical Engineer at age 16. In 1915, Charles joined the AIF, and later he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps, and then he was commissioned in 1917. By this time he became widely known for his excellent flying skills. In World War 1, at Gallipoli, 1915 Charles served the Signal Corps as a dispatch rider. He was with the squadron for six weeks, and had four victories. He also had to amputate three of his toes because of a sortie over the Somme. After he was done at Gallipoli, Charles received the Military Cross from the King while he was on crutches. After the World War 1 Smithy, as he known as, did joy riding and stunts aboard before returning to Australia in 1921. He then gave joy rides and exhibitions at Wellington NSW, before joining the pioneer Western Australian Airways to fly a mail route between Geraldton and Derby, WA. At the end of 1926 Kingsford Smith purchased two small Bristol aeroplanes and returned to eastern Australia. In July 1927, Smithy traveled to America to organise finance for a Trans-Pacific flight. There he purchased a Fokker tri-motored aircraft, which he named Southern Cross. He and his friend, Ulm, took off from California on the 31st of May 1928 and after 83 hours and 28 minutes of flying they landed in Brisbane on the 9th of June. They were the first men to cross the Pacific by air. In 1930, still in partnership with C.T.P. Ulm, Smithy founded Australian National Airways and began a Sydney to Brisbane air service on 1 January, followed in by a Melbourne-Sydney service and a Melbourne-Hobart service. Later on Smithy returned to barnstorming for a living, and bec ...

Biology Aqa

16. 8 – Genetic fingerprinting43 Section 9. 1 – Sensory Reception †¢ A stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment of an organism that produces a response. The ability to respond to a stimulus increases an organism’s chances of survival. †¢ Receptors transfer the energy of a stimulus into a form that can be processed by the organism and leads to a response. †¢ The response is carried out by â€Å"effectors† which can include cells, tissues, organs and systems. Taxis – A simple response that’s direction is determined by the direction of the stimulus An organism can respond directly to a change in the environment by moving its body either: 1. Toward the stimulus (positive taxis) 2. Away from the stimulus (negative taxis) Kinesis – Results in an increase of random movements †¢ Organism does not move towards/away from the stimulus †¢ The more intense the stimulus the more rapid the movements †¢ Kinesis is important when the stimulus is less directional such as heat or humidity Tropism – a growth movement of part of a plant in response to a directional stimulus Positive phototropism – shoots/leaves Positive Geotropism – roots Section 9. 2 – Nervous Control Nervous organisation The nervous system can be thought of as having two main divisions: . The central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord 2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) – Made up of pairs of nerves that originate either from the brain or the spinal cord The peripheral nervous system This is divided into: †¢ Sensory neurons which carry impulses away from receptors to the CNS †¢ Motor neurons which carry nervous impulses from the CNS to effectors The spinal cord is a column of nervous tissue A reflex – involuntary response to a stimulus (you do stop to consider an alternative) The pathway of neurons involved in a reflex is called a reflex arc. Reflex arcs contain just 3 neurons: 1. A sensory neuron 2. An intermediate neuron 3. A motor neuron There are several stages of a reflex arc: 1. Stimulus 2. Receptor 3. Sensory neuron 4. Synapse 5. Coordinator (intermediate neuron) 6. Synapse 7. Motor neuron 8. Effecter 9. Response Importance of the reflex arc †¢ Involuntary – does not require the decision making power of the brains †¢ Brain can override the response if necessary †¢ Protects the body from harmful stimuli Effective from birth – does not need to be learnt †¢ Short pathway – fewer synapses Synapses – slow Neurons – fast Section 9. 3 – Control of heart rate The Autonomic nervous system Controls subconscious activities of muscles and glands Has two main divisions: The sympathetic nervous system – Speeds up activities and thus allows us to cope with stressful situations (fight or flight r esponse) The parasympathetic nervous system – Inhibits effects and slows down activities. This allows energy to be conserved. Controls under normal resting conditions The two divisions are antagonistic meaning that their effects oppose one another Control of heart rate Changes of the heart rate are controlled by a region of the brain called the medulla oblongata which has two main divisions One division is connected to the sinoatrial node through the sympathetic nervous system The other is connected to the sinoatrial node via the parasympathetic nervous system Control by chemoreceptors Chemoreceptors are found in the wall of the carotid arteries and detect hanges in pH as a result of CO2 concentration When CO2 concentration in the blood is too low, chemoreceptors detect the drop in pH and send impulses to the section of the medulla oblongata responsible for increasing heart rate This section then increases the number of impulses sent to the S. A node via the sympathetic nervous system This results in an increase in heart rate which then causes blood pH to return to normal. Control by pressure receptors Pressure receptors occur in the wall of the carotid arteries and the aorta When blood pressure is too high – impulses are sent to the medulla oblongata which then sends impulses to the S. A node via the parasympathetic nervous system decreasing the heart rate When blood pressure is too low – impulses are sent to the medulla oblongata which then sends impulses to the S. A node via the sympathetic nervous system, increasing the heart rate Section 9. 4 – Role of receptors Features of sensory reception A sensory receptor will: †¢ Only respond to a specific type of stimulus (e. g. light, pressure, etc) †¢ Produce a generator potential by acting as a transducer. This means that it can convert the information to a form that the human body can interpret. This is achieved by using the energy of a stimulus into a nerve impulse called a generator potential. Structure and function of a pacinian corpuscle Responds to mechanical pressure Occurs in ligaments and joints so that it is possible to tell which direction a joint is changing The neuron of a pacinian corpuscle is in the centre of layers of tissue, each separated by gel The sensory neuron of a pacinian corpuscle has stretch-mediated sodium channels in its plasma membrane †¢ During its resting state, stretch-mediated sodium channels are too narrow to allow sodium through. The corpuscle therefore has a resting potential †¢ When pressure is applied, the membrane of the neuron is stretched causing sodium channels to widen therefore allowing sodium to diffuse into the neuron †¢ The influx of sodium ions cause a change in the polarity of the neuron, creating a resting potential †¢ The generator potential creates a action potential which moves along the neuron Receptors working together in the eye Different receptors respond to a different intensity of a stimulus Light receptors of the eye are found in the retina (the inner most layer) The light receptors in the eye can are of two types, rod and cone cells. Both receptors convert light energy into a nervous impulse and are therefore acting as transducers Rod cells Cannot distinguish between different wavelengths Many rod cells are connected to the same neuron and so can function at low light intensities. A threshold must be reached in the bipolar cells to which they are attached to and so since they can all contribute to reaching this threshold, they will function at lower light intensities Rod cells breakdown the pigment rhodopsin to generate an action potential. Rhodopsin is easily broken down in low light intensity Since more that one rod cell is connected to the same neuron, only one impulse will be generated. It is impossible for the brain to determine which rod cells were stimulate to begin with and so it is not possible to determine exactly the source of light This results in rod cells having a relatively poor visual acuity and so are not very effective in distinguishing between two points close together Cone cells There are three types of cone cells, each of which respond to a different avelength The colour interpreted depends of the proportion of each type of cone cell stimulated Cone cells are connected only to one bipolar cells, this means that they cannot combine to reach a threshold. As a result of this a high light intensity is required to create a generator potential Cone cells breakdown the pigment iodopsin to create a generator potential Iodopsin can only be broken down by a high light intensity Since cone cells are connected to a single bipolar cell, when two adjacent cells are stimulated, two separate nervous impulses will be sent to the brain. This means that it is easier to determine the source of the light. As a result, cone cells are responsible for higher visual acuity since they allow you to better distinguish between two points Light is concentrated by a lens to the centre of the eye called the fovea. This region receives a high light intensity and therefore has more cone cells. The peripheries of the eye receive a low light intensity and therefore consist mainly of rod cells. Section 10. 1 – Coordination Body systems cannot work in isolation and must therefore be integrated in a coordinated fashion. Principles of coordination In mammals, there are two main forms of coordination: 1. The nervous system – Uses nerve cells that can pass electrical impulses along their length. The result is the secretion of chemicals by the target cells called neurotransmitters. The response is quick, yet short lived and only acts on a localised region of the body. 2. The hormonal system – Chemicals are transported in the blood plasma which then reach target certain cells, thus stimulating them to carry out a function. The responses due to secretion of hormones often act over a longer period of time, yet are slower to act. Chemical mediators Nervous and hormonal forms of communication are only useful at coordinating the activities of the whole organism. At the cellular level they are complimented by chemical mediators. Chemical mediators are secreted by individual cells and affect other cells in the immediate vicinity. A common example of this type of coordination is the inflammation of certain tissues when they are damaged or exposed to foreign agents. Two examples of chemical mediators are: 1. Histamine – Stored in white blood cells and is secreted due to the presence of antigens. Histamine causes dilation of blood vessels, increased permeability of capillaries and therefore swelling the infected area. 2. Prostaglandins – Found in cell membranes and cause dilation of small arteries and arterioles. They release due to injuries and increase the permeability of capillaries. They also affect blood pressure and neurotransmitters. In doing so they relieve pain. Hormonal system |Nervous system | |Communication by chemicals |Communication by nervous impulses | Transmission takes place in the blood |Transmission is by neurons | |Transmission is generally slow |Transmission is very rapid | |Hormones travel to all areas of the body, but target only |Nerve impulses travel to specific areas of the body | |certain tissues/organs | | |Response is widespread |Response is localised | |Effect may be permanent/long lasting/ irreversible |Effect is temporary and reversible | Plant growth factors Plants respond to external stimuli by means of plant growth factors (plant hormones) Plant growth factors: †¢ Exert their influence by affecting growth †¢ Are not produced by a particular organ, but are instead produced by all cells †¢ affect the tissues that actually produce them, rather than other tissues in a different area of the plant. One plant hormone called indoleacetic acid (IAA) causes plant cells to elongate Control of tropisms by IAA IAA is used to ensure that plant shoots grow towards a light source. 1. Cells in the tip of the shoot produce IAA, which is then transported down the shoot. 2. The IAA is initial transported to all sides as it begins to move down the shoot 3. Light causes the movement of IAA from the light side to the shaded side of the shoot. 4. A greater concentration of IAA builds up on the shaded side of the shoot 5. The cells on the shaded side elongate more due to the higher concentration of IAA 6. The shaded side of the root therefore grows faster, causing the shoot to bend towards the source of light IAA can also effect the bending of roots towards gravity. However in this case it slows down growth rather than speeds it up. IAA decreases root growth and increases shoot growth Section 10. 2 – Neurons Specialised cells adapted to rapidly carry electrochemical changes (nerve impulses) from part of the body to another Neuron structure Cell body †¢ Nucleus †¢ Large amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum to produce neurotransmitters Dendrons †¢ Extensions of the cell body sub-divided into dendrites †¢ Carry nervous impulses to the cell body Axon †¢ A single long fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body Schwann cell †¢ Surrounds the axon †¢ Protection/electrical insulation/phagocytosis. Can remove cell debris and are associated with nerve regeneration. Myelin sheath †¢ Made up from the Schwann membrane which produces myelin (a lipid) †¢ Some neurons are unmyelinated and carry slower nerve impulses Nodes of Ranvier †¢ The gaps between myelinated areas †¢ 2 – 3 micrometers long and occur every 1 – 3mm Sensory Neuron †¢ Transmit impulses from a receptor to an intermediate neuron or motor neuron †¢ One Dendron towards the cell body, one axon away from the cell body Motor neuron †¢ Transmit impulses from the sensory/intermediate neuron to an effector †¢ Long axon, many short dendrites Intermediate neuron †¢ Transmit impulses between neurons †¢ Numerous short processes Section 10. 3 – The nerve impulse A nerve impulse is not an electrical current! It is a self-propagating wave of electrical disturbance that travels along the surface of an axon membrane. Nerve impulse – temporary reversal of the electrical p. d across an axon membrane The reversal is between two states The resting potential no nerve impulse transmitted The action potential – nerve impulse transmitted Resting potential †¢ Sodium/potassium are not lipid soluble and cannot cross the plasma membrane. Transported via intrinsic proteins – ion channels †¢ Some intrinsic proteins actively transport potassium ions into the axon and sodium ions out. This is called the sodium potassium pump. Sodium potassium pump 3 sodium ions pumped out for every 2 potassium ions pump in †¢ Most gated potassium channels remain open – potassium ions move out of the axon down their chemical gradient †¢ Most gated sodium channels remain closed The action potential †¢ Temporary reversal of the charge of the membrane from (-65mV to +65mV). When the p. d is +65mV the axon is said to be depolarised †¢ Occurs because the ion channels open/close depending upon the voltage across the membrane †¢ When the generator potential is reached, sodium ion channels open and potassium close, allowing sodium to flood into the axon. Sodium being positively charged causes the axon to become more positive in charge The passage of an action potential along an unmyelinated axon †¢ Stimulus – some voltage – gated ion channels open, sodium ions move in down electrochemical gradient †¢ Causes more sodium channels to open †¢ When the action potential reaches ~ +40mV sodium channels close †¢ Voltage – gated potassium channels open and begin repolarisation of the axon Hyper – polarisation †¢ The inside of the axon becomes more negative than usual due to an â€Å"overshoot† in potassium ions moving out of the axon. †¢ Potassium channels close †¢ Sodium potassium pump re-established the -65mV resting potential Section 10. 5 – The speed of a nerve impulse Factors affecting speed 1. The myelin sheath – Prevents the action potential forming in myelinated areas of the axon. The action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to another (salutatory conduction) – this increases the speed of the impulse as less action potentials need to occur 2. The greater the diameter of the axon the greater the speed of conductance – due to less leakage of ions from the axon 3. Temperature – Higher temperature, faster nerve impulse. Energy for active transport comes from respiration. Respiration like the sodium potassium pump is controlled by enzymes. Refractory period After an action potential, sodium voltage-gated channels are closed and sodium cannot move into the axon. It is therefore impossible during this time for a further action potential to be generated. This time period, called the refractory period serves two purposes: It ensures that an action potential can only be propagated in one direction – An action potential can only move from an active region to a resting region. It produces discrete impulses – A new action potential cannot be generated directly after the first. It ensures action potentials are separated from one another. It limits the number of action potentials – action potentials are separated from one another, therefore there is a limited amount that can pass along a neuron in a given time. All or nothing principle Nervous impulses are all or nothing responses A stimulus must exceed a certain threshold value to trigger an action potential A stimulus that exceeds the threshold value by a significant amount, will produce the same strength of action potential as if it has only just overcome the threshold value A stimulus can therefore only produce one action potential An organism can perceive different types of stimulus in two ways: The number of impulses in a given time (larger stimulus, more impulses per second) Having neurons with different threshold values – depending on which neurons are sending impulses, and how frequently impulses are sent, the brain can interpret the strength of the stimulus Section 10. 6/10. 7 – Structure and function of the synapse / Transmission across a synapse A synapse occurs where a dendrite of one neuron connects to the axon of another Structure of a synapse Synapses use neurotransmitters to send impulses between neurons The gap between two neurons is called the synaptic cleft The neuron that produces neurotransmitters is called the presynaptic neuron The axon of the presynaptic neuron ends in a presynaptic knob The presynaptic knob consists of many mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum These organelles are required to produce neurotransmitters which are stored in synaptic vesicles Synaptic vesicles can fuse with the presynaptic membrane releases the neurotransmitter Functions of synapses †¢ A single impulse from neuron can be transmitted to several other neurons at a synapse. This means that one impulse can create a number of simultaneous responses †¢ A number of different impulses can be combined at a synapse. This means that several responses can be combined to give on single response Neurotransmitters are made in the presynaptic cleft only When an action potential reaches the presynaptic knob, it causes vesicles containing the neurotransmitter to fuse with the presynaptic membrane The neurotransmitter will the diffuse across the synaptic cleft The neurotransmitter then bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, in doing so generating a new action potential in the postsynaptic neuron Features of synapses Unidirectionality Impulses can only be sent from the presynaptic membrane to the postsynaptic membrane Summation †¢ Spatial summation Different presynaptic neurons together will release enough neurotransmitter to exceed the threshold value to form an action potential †¢ Temporal summation – One neuron releasing neurotransmitter many times over a short period. Eventually the neurotransmitter will accumulate so as to overcome the threshold value of the postsynaptic membrane. Therefore generating a new action potential Inhibition Some postsynaptic membranes have protein channels that can allow chloride ions to diffuse into the axon making it more negative than usual at resting potential. This type of hyperpolarisation inhibits the postsynaptic neuron from generating a new action potential. The importance of these inhibitory synapses is that it allows for nervous impulses to be controlled and stopped if necessary Transmission across a synapse When the neurotransmitter across a synapse is the chemical acetylcholine it is called a cholinergic synapse Acetylcholine is made up of acetyl (ethanoic acid) and choline Cholinergic synapses are more common in vertebrates Cholinergic synapses occur in the central nervous system and at neuromuscular junctions 1. When an action potential reaches the presynaptic knob, calcium channels open allow calcium to diffuse into the presynaptic knob 2. The influx of calcium ions causes presynaptic vesciles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft 3. Acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft and fuses with receptor sites on sodium channels found on the presynaptic membrane. When they do so, the sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to diffuse along their concentration gradient into the postsynaptic knob. 4. The influx of sodium ions, generates a new action potential in the postsynaptic neuron 5. Acetylcholinesterase hydrolyses acetylcholine back into the acetyl and choline which will the diffuse back across the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic neuron. In this way acetylcholine can be recycles and reused and also is prevented from continuously generating new action potentials on the postsynaptic neuron. 6. ATP is released by mitochondria, providing energy to recombine acetyl and choline. Sodium channels on the postsynaptic membrane are now closed due to the absence of acetylcholine attached to receptor sites. Section 11. 1 – Structure of skeletal muscle There are three types of muscle in the body: Cardiac muscle which is found only in the heart Smooth muscle which is found in the walls of blood vessels Skeletal muscle which is attached to bone and is the only type of muscle under conscious control Muscles are made up of many muscle fibres called myofibrils If the cells of muscles were joined together from the end of one cell to another, the point between cells would be a point of weakness Because of this, the muscle cells are fused together into muscle fibres Cells of the same myofibrils share the same nuclei as well as cytoplasm (sarcosplasm). Within the sacroplasm are many mitochondria as well as endoplasmic reticulum Microscopic structure of skeletal muscle Myofibrils are made up of two types of protein filament Actin – thinner, consists of two strands twisted around each other Myosin – thicker and is made up of long rod shaped fibres with bulbous heads projecting outwards Myofibrils have coloured bands The isotropic (I) bands appears lighter since it consists only of actin (no overlap) The anisotropic (A) bands are darker since this is where acting and myosin overlap The H zone is the region in the centre of the sarcomere that is lighter in colour since there is only myosin The z line lies at the centre of the I bands Types of muscle fibre Slow-twitch fibres – Contract more slowly, less powerful. Adapted for endurance/aerobic respiration so less lactic acid forms Adaptations include: Large store of myoglobin, Supply of glycogen, Rich supply of blood vessels, Numerous mitochondria Fast-twitch – Contracts more rapidly with more power but only for a short period of time. Adapted for intense exercise by: Having hicker and more numerous myosin filaments, having a high concentration of enzymes used for anaerobic respiration, a large store of phosphocreatine to provide phosphate to make ATP Neuromuscular junctions Many neuromuscular junctions are spread through the muscle for simultaneous contraction Each muscle fibre has one motor neuron associated with it. The muscle fibre and the neuron make up one motor unit When only a small force is needed only a few motor units are stimulated When a nerve impulse reaches the neuromuscular junction, the synaptic vesicles join with the presynaptic membrane and release acetylcholine which diffuses across to the postsynaptic membrane and stimulates it to allow sodium ions to enter. The acetylcholine is then broken down by Acetylcholinesterase and then diffuses back into the presynaptic neuron. Section 11. 2 contraction of skeletal muscle During muscle contract, actin and myosin slide past each other; hence its name the sliding filament mechanism Evidence for the sliding filament mechanism When a muscle contract, the following changes occur to the sarcomere: The I band becomes narrower The z lines move close to one another The h band becomes narrower The a band does not change as this band is determined by the width of the myosin Myosin is made up of two different types of protein 1. A fibrous protein arranged into the filament called the tail 2. A globular protein that forms a head at each end Actin is a globular proteins thats molecules are arranged into two chains that twist around each other in a helical manner Tropomyosin forms long thin stands that s wound around the actin molecule The process of muscle contraction has a three main stages: Stimulation, contraction and relaxation Muscle stimulation When an action potential reaches the neuromuscular junctions, Calcium ion channels open and calcium ions move into the synaptic knob The Calcium ions cause the synaptic vesicles to move to the presynaptic membrane and fuse with it releasing acetylcholine Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds with receptors on the sodium voltage gated channels on the postsynaptic membrane causing it to depolarise Muscle contraction The action potential movies through the fibres by travelling through T – tubules that branch through the sarcoplasm The action potential moves through the tubules until it reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum The action potential opens calcium ions in the sarcoplasmic reticulum Calcium ions diffuse out into the muscle Calcium ions cause tropomyosin to change shape and so that the binding sites on the actin filament are exposed An ADP molecule that is attached to the myosin heads allows it to form a cross bridge with actin by binding with the receptor site Once the cross bridge is formed, the myosin head changes shape and slides the actin across. In doing so it loses the ADP An ATP molecule attaches to the myosin head and thus causes it to detach Calcium ions activate the enzyme ATPase which hydrolyses ATP and releases energy that allows the myosin head to resume its original shape. The myosin head now has a new ADP molecule that will allow it to bind with a new receptor site somewhere along the actin filament Muscle relaxation When the muscle is not being stimulated, the sarcoplasmic reticulum actively transport calcium ions back into it The lack of calcium ions means that tropomyosin can establish its original position, covering the myosin head binding sites Energy supply Energy is needed for the movement of myosin heads and the active transport of calcium ions ATP often needs to be generated anaerobically Phosphocreatine provides inorganic phosphate molecules to combine with ADP to form ATP Section 12. 1 – Principle of homeostasis The maintenance of a constant internal environment By maintaining a relatively constant environment (of the tissue fluid) for their cells, organisms can limit the external changed these cells experience thereby giving the organisms a degree of independence. What is homeostasis? Maintaining the volume, chemical make up and other factors of blood and tissue fluid within restricted limits There are continuous fluctuations; however, they occur around a set point Homeostasis is the ability to return to that set point thus maintaining equilibrium The importance of homeostasis Enzymes and other proteins are sensitive to changes in pH and temperature Water potential of blood and tissue fluid should be kept constant to ensure cells do not burst or shrink due to a net movement of water (osmosis) Maintaining a constant blood glucose concentration ensures that the water potential of the blood remains the same Independence of the external environment – a wider geographical range and therefore a greater chance of finding food shelter, etc Mammals – homeostasis allows them to tolerate a wide range of conditions Control mechanisms The set point is monitored by: 1. Receptor 2. Controller brain analyses and records information from a number of different sources and decides on the best course of action 3. Effector – brings about the change to return to set point 4. Feedback loop – informing the receptor of the changes in the system brought about by the effector Section 12. 2 Thermoregulation Mechanisms of heat loss and gain Production of heat – Metabolism of food during respiration Gain of heat from the environment – Conduction, convection (surrounding air/fluid), Radiation (electromagnetic waves particularly infrared) Mechanisms for losing heat Evaporation of water Conduction – to ground/solid Convection convection (to surrounding air/fluid), Radiation Endotherms derive most heat energy from metabolic activities Ectotherms – obtain most heat from the external environment Regulation of body temperature in Ectotherms Body temp fluctuates with the environment Controlled by exposure to the sun Shelter to the sun/burrows at night/obtains heat from the ground and very little from respiration. Can sometimes change colour to alter heat that is radiated Regulation of body temperature in Endotherms Most heat gained through internal metabolic activities Temperature range 35 – 44 oC – Compromise between higher temperature where enzymes work more rapidly and the amount of energy needed (hence food) to maintain that temperature Conserving and gaining heat in response to a cold environment Long term adaptations: Small SA:V ration Therefore mammals and birds in cold environments are relatively large Smaller extremities (e. g. ears) thick fur, feathers or fat reserves to insulate the body Rapid changes: Vasoconstriction – reducing the diameter of arteries/arterioles Shivering – in voluntary rapid movements and contractions that produce he energy from respiration Raising hair – enables a thick layer of still air to build up which acts as a good insulator. Behavioural mechanisms – bathing in the sun Decreased sweating Loss of heat in response to a warm environment Long term adaptations: Large SA:V ratio so smaller animals are found in warmer climates Larger extremities Light coloured fur to reflect heat Vasodilation – Arterioles increase in diameter, more blood reaches capillaries, more heat is therefore radiated away Increased sweating – Heat energy is required to evaporate sweat (water). Energy for this comes from the body. Therefore, removes heat energy to evaporate water Lower body hair – Hair erector muscles relax. Hairs flatten, reduces the insulating layer of air, so more heat can be lost to the environment Behavioural mechanisms – seeking shade, burrows, etc Control of body temperature Mechanisms to control body temperature are coordinated by the hypothalamus in the brain The hypothalamus has a thermoregulatory centre divided into two parts: A heat gain centre which is activated by a fall in body temperature And a heat loss centre which is activated by an increase in temperature The hypothalamus measures the temperature of blood passing through it Thermoreceptors in the skin also measure the temperature Impulses sent to the hypothalamus are sent via the autonomic nervous system The core temperature in the blood is more important that the temperature stimulating skin Thermoreceptors Section 12. 3/12/4 – Hormones and the regulations of blood glucose/Diabetes and its control Hormones are produced by glands (endocrine glands) which secrete the hormones into the blood The hormones are carried in the blood plasma to the target cells to which they act. The target cells have complementary receptors on the cell surface membrane Hormones are affective in small quantities set have widespread and long-lasting affects Some hormones work via the secondary messenger model: 1. The hormone (the first messenger) binds to receptors on the cell surface membrane, forming a hormone-receptor complex 2. The hormone-receptor complex activates an enzyme inside the cell that produces a secondary messenger chemical 3. The secondary messenger acts within the cell produces and a series of changes Both glucagon and adrenaline work by the secondary messenger model Adrenaline as a secondary messenger 1. The hormone adrenaline forms a hormone-receptor complex and therefore activates an enzyme inside the cell membrane 2. The activated enzyme the converts ATP to cyclic AMP which acts as the secondary messenger.